A
adynaton
A type of hyperbole in which the exaggeration is so great that it suggests that something is impossible.
examples:
When pigs fly.
It's raining cats and dogs.
Mom will kill us when she gets home!
alliteration
This is the repetition of initial consonant sounds in two or more neighboring words, (sometimes also in words that are not next to each other). It is usually used to give emphasis and to draw attention.
examples:
safe and secure.
Best buy.
For the greater good.
'Veni, vidi, vinci.' Julius Caesar
allusion
Reference to something (person, place, event etc.) that evokes significations without having to express them explicitly.
examples:
Mobile phone records proved his Achilles heel. (In Greek mythology, Achilles was impervious to injury, except for one of his heels.)
The new tax regime was Draconian. (Draco was a tyrannical Athenian ruler)
To meet one’s Waterloo. (Allusion to Napoleons defeat in the Battle of Waterloo)
amplification
The repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis and increased intensity.
examples:
Love, real love, takes time.
They want a perfect house in a perfect neighborhood.
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day. Shakespeare Macbeth Act 5 Sc. 5
anacoluthon
To introduce a sudden change in ideas or sometimes a seemingly unrelated topic in the middle of a sentence. Commonly used to add emphasis to an idea.
Anacolutha are often sentences interrupted midway, where there is a change in the syntactical structure of the sentence and of intended meaning following the interruption.
Common in informal speech, where a speaker might start to say one thing, then break off and abruptly and incoherently continue, expressing a completely different line of thought. In writing, an em dash '—' is often used at the point of discontinuity.
anadiplosis
To use the last word of a sentence or phrase, as the first word of the next. (A form of amplification.) This allows a thought to carry through to the next idea, making it easier for the listener to follow the chain of ideas.
examples:
Fear leads to anger, anger leads to hate and hate leads to suffering –Yoda, Star Wars
'I am Sam, Sam I am.' Dr. Seuss (Green Eggs and Ham)
analogy
An analogy explains one thing in terms of another to highlight the ways in which they are alike.
Analogies that are very well known sometimes fall into the categories of idioms or figures of speech.
examples:
‘the root of all evil’ an analogy with plants.
‘grass-roots’ supporters.
The flower of civilization.
He had a grip of iron.
He has the chance of a snowflake in hell.
anaphora
The repetition of a word of phrase at the beginning of two or more clauses, phrases or sentence.
It is related to epistrophe, which is the repetition of words at the end of successive clauses, phrases, or sentences.
examples:
‘So let freedom ring from the prodigious hilltops of New Hampshire. Let freedom ring. from the mighty mountains of New York. Let freedom ring from the heightening Alleghenies of Pennsylvania.’ Martin Luther King
'But in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this ground.' - Abraham Lincoln
anastrophe
The inversion of the usual syntactical order of words for rhetorical effect.
Moving more of the sentence around is called hyperbaton.
examples:
Ask not what your country can do for you … J. F. Kennedy
To boldly go where no man has gone before! Star Trek.
antanagoge
Combing a negative statement with a positive one.
examples:
The car is not pretty, but it runs well.
When life gives you lemons, make lemonade.
antimetabole
Antimetabole repeats words or phrases in reverse order.
examples:
Ask not what your country can do for you — ask what you can do for your country. — John F. Kennedy
antiphrasis
Antiphrasis uses a word with an opposite meaning for ironic or humorous effect.
examples:
‘We named our chihuahua Goliath.’
antistrophe
This is repetition of words at the end of consecutive phrases or clauses—a specific type of repetition.
examples:
‘What lies behind us and what lies before us are tiny compared to what lies within us.’ — Ralph Waldo Emerson
antithesis
In this, two opposite and contrasting ideas are juxtaposed.
The structure of the phrases or clauses is usually similar in order to draw attention directly to the contrast.
examples:
That’s one small step for a man, one gient leap for mankind. Neil Armstrong
To err is human; to forgive, divine. Alexander Pope
To be or not to be , that is the question. William Shakespeare (Hamlet)
antitheton
The opposition of two facts of contrasting content.
examples:
The kind of things you would find on a typical phone, but in a very untypical way now.
anthimeria
The intentional misuse of one part of speech as another, such as using a noun as a verb.
examples:
Facebooking
adulting
The little old lady turtled along the road.
antonomasia
The use of affectionate epithets that take the place of proper names.
examples:
Old blue eyes for Frank Sinatra.
The fab four for the Beatles.
Ralph Waldo Emerson.
apophasis
To say something while denying it. A tactic for bringing up a subject (by denying that it should be brought up).
examples:
I am not saying that it is your fault, but you were the one who broke the vase.
Why would Kim Jong-un insult me by calling me ‘old’, when I would NEVER call him ‘short and fat?’ &mdash Donald Trump tweet
aporia
Where a speaker expresses uncertainty or doubt (real or feigned), about something.
examples:
How do I love thee? Let me count the ways.
aposiopesis
Where a sentence is deliberately broken off and left unfinished, the listener supplying the ending from their immagination. Gives an impression of unwillingness or inability to continue. From the Greek for ‘becoming silent’.
examples:
Get out, or else I'll ...
No, you unnatural hags,
I will have such revenges on you both,
That all the world shall— I will do such things,— Shakespeare (King Lear)
appositive
An appositive places a noun or noun phrase next to another noun for descriptive purposes.
examples:
Mary, queen of the island, hosted the ball.
asterismos
Using an introductory word or phrase (such as ‘behold’) to call attention to what follows. From the Greek, ‘marking with stars’.
examples:
Behold, Nagini, our work is done. — Lord Voldemort in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows: Part 2, 2011
Make no mistake about it ...
... Verily I say unto you, That a rich man shall hardly enter into the kingdom of heaven.
And again I say unto you, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God. — Bible KJV (Matthew 19:23-24)
asyndeto
The successive use of different syllables with the same or similar vowel sounds in words with different consonants. It is similar to rhyme.
examples:
I feel the need , the need for speed. Tom Cruise (from the movie Top Gun)
The odious apparatus of Nazi rule. Winston Churchill
It beats as it sweeps as it cleans. advertising slogan for Hoover vacuum cleaners
asyndeton
Sequence or words or similar expression without the use of conjunctions.
examples:
We’ve got movies, TV shows, music, podcasts, photos.
We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty. J. F. Kennedy
auxesis
A gradual increase in the intensity of meaning with words arranged in ascending order of force or importance. From a Greek word that means growth, increase or amplification. Hyperbole is a form of auxesis.
examples:
"And he, repulsed, a short tale to make,
Fell into a sadness, then into a fast,
Thence to a watch, thence into a weakness,
Thence to a lightness; and by this declension
Into the madness wherein now he raves,
And all we wail for." Shakespeare (Hamlet Act II sc.ii)
You, with that throat, those lungs, that strength, that would do credit to a prizefighter, in every limb of your body. Cicero
B
bdelygmia (or abominatio)
A rhetorical insult expressing hatred of a person, word or action through a series of criticisms. From a Greek word meaning ‘filth’ or ‘nastiness’.
examples:
You're a foul one, Mr. Grinch, You're a nasty wasty skunk, Your heart is full of unwashed socks, your soul is full of gunk, Mr. Grinch. The three words that best describe you are as follows, and I quote, ‘Stink, stank, stunk!’ — Dr. Seuss
Cigarettes are a filthy, horrible, disgusting habit. They pollute the air and poison children. Their purveyors are evil, wicked and mendacious promoters of death.
He is loathsome to the eye and ear, disgusting all decent people with his ill manner and vitreous, poisonous tongue.
C
cacophony
Harshness in the sound of words or phrases, or an incongruous or chaotic mixture. (As distinct from euphony — pleasing to the ear.)
examples:
He grunted and in a gruff voice said, “Give me that trash and I'll throw it out!
’Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:
All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe. — Lewis Carroll (Jabberwocky)
chiasmus
Where the words in one phrase or clause are reversed in the next. Used to invoke a sense of powerful emotion.
examples:
It's not the men in my life that counts: it's the life in my men. Mae West
One should eat to live, not live to eat. Cicero
Your manuscript is both good and original; but the part that is good is not original, and the part that is original is not good. Samuel Johnson
Despised, if ugly; if she's fair, betrayed. Mary Leapor
climax (also know as 'gradatio')
Where words or phrases are arranged in order of increasing importance or emphasis. Often used with 'parallelism' because it offers a sense of continuity, order, and movement-up the ladder of importance.
examples:
First was the mouse. The second was the click wheel. And now, we’re gonna bring multi-touch to the market. Steve Jobs
Veni, vidi, vinci. Julius Caesar
... for the good of all of us, for the love of this great nation, for the family of America, for the love of God ... Mario Cuomo, Governor of New York
D
diacope
A repeated word or phrase split up by another word, to display strong emotion.
examples:
Free at last! Free at last! Thank god we are free at last!
The people everywhere , not just here in Britain, everywhere—they kept faith with Princess Diana. Tony Blair
distincto
An elaboration on a particular meaning of a word in order to prevent any misunderstanding or ambiguity.
examples:
In modern times (and here I am referring to the post-World War Two era) ...
The task could be described as difficult, if by difficult we mean that it will entail hardship.
dysphemism
A description that is explicitly offensive to its subject or its audience or both. It contrasts with euphemism.
examples:
Snail mail for postal mail.
Pig for policeman.
Bookworm for conscientious student.
E
ellipsis
Where one or more words are omitted so the listener or reader has to supply them for the sentence to be understood. Usually marked by the ellipsis punctuation mark—'…'—in writing.
examples:
Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth … the proposition that all men are created equal. Abraham Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address
enumeratio
Enumeratio makes a point with details.
examples:
The hotel renovation, including a new spa, tennis court, pool, and lounge, is finally complete.
epanalepsis
Epanalepsis repeats something from the beginning of a clause or sentence at the end.
examples:
Always Low Prices. Always. Walmart slogan
epigraph
Where the author (or speaker) cites a quotation from another author (or speaker). Unlike an allusion, the writer (or speaker) directly references somebody else's statement.
epiphora
Repetition of a word or phrase at the end of every clause.
examples:
Well, these are their home screens. And again, as you recall, this is the iPhone’s homescreen. This is what their contacts look like. This is what iPhone’s contacts look like. Steve Jobs
epistrophe also called 'antistrophe'
Repetition of words at the end of successive phrases or sentences.
examples:
… and that the government of the people, by the people and for the people shall not perish from the earth. Abraham Lincoln
epithet
A descriptive word or phrase expressing a quality of the person or thing.
examples:
Richard the Lionheart.
Scott from sales. Current prime minister of Australia (2022).
epizeuxis
Epizeuxis repeats one word for emphasis.
examples:
The amusement park was fun, fun, fun.
eponym
The substitution of the name of a famous person recognized or famous for a particular attribute, for that attribute.
examples:
You don't need to be Einstein to see that ....
That little Hitler is fooling nobody.
euphemism
The use of an innocuous word or expression in place of one that is deemed offensive or suggests something unpleasant. Some euphemisms are intended to amuse, while others use bland, inoffensive terms for concepts that the user wishes to downplay. Euphemisms may be used to mask profanity or refer to topics some consider taboo such as disability, sex, excretion, or death in a polite way.
examples:
'Culturally deprived environment' instead of 'slum'.
'Domestic engineering' instead of 'housework'.
'Genuine imitation leather' instead of 'fake leather' or 'vinyl'.
euphony
The use of words with a pleasing sound to the ear.
examples:
To be, or not to be ...
The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune. Shakespeare (Hamlet)
Do not go gentle into that good night. Dylan Thomas
I wandered, lonely as a cloud ... Wordsworth
exclamatio
An exclamation that expresses the emotional affection of the speaker.
examples:
O Girls, Girls,
How I love you! Goethe.
When all at once I saw a crowd,
A host of golden daffodils!
expletive
A word or short phrase that interrupts normal speech in order to lend emphasis to the words immediately next to it.
examples:
... we shall never surrender, and even if, which I do not for a moment believe, this Island or a large part of it were subjugated and starving ... Winston Churchill
F
G
germinatio
The repetition of a word or word group in a sentence.
examples:
That’s 58 songs every second of every minute of every hour of every day.
Steve Jobs
Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow,
Creeps in this petty pace from day to day ... Shakespeare (Macbeth)
H
hyperbole (opposite of 'meiosis')
A deliberate exaggeration that draws attention to something (message, idea, circumstance etc.).
examples:
I’m so hungry, I could eat a horse.
I have told you a thousand times.
hypocatastasis
A figure of speech that compares one thing with another by stating that the one thing is the other. Unlike in a metaphor, where the two nouns are named, in hypocatastasis, only one is named and the other is implied.
examples:
Addresing someone as: ‘monster‘.
In the bible Satan is often referred to as ‘the serpent‘.
Rhetorical comparisons
Some of the most prevalent rhetorical devices are figures of speech that compare one thing to another. Two of these, you surely know: the simile and the metaphor. But there is a third, hypocatastasis, that is just as common and useful.
The distinctions between the three are pretty simple. A simile compares two things using like or as: "You are like a monster." A metaphor compares them by asserting that they’re the same: "You're a monster." And with hypocatastasis, the comparison itself is implied: "Monster!"
hypophora
Where a writer or speaker asks a question and immediately provides the answer. Unlike a rhetorical question, a hypophora wastes no time in providing a direct answer to a posed question. Can be used to introduce a new area of discussion.
examples:
How many countries have actually hit the targets set at Rio, or in Kyoto in 1998, for cutting greenhouse-gas emissions? Precious few.
Why is it important to eat healthy foods? It is important because you can heal illness and build your immune system.
I
interrogatio
A rhetorical question to which the answer is self-evident.
examples:
Isn’t that incredible?
Want to see that again?
Pretty cool, huh?
irony
Where what appears to be the case on the surface appears or to be expected differs radically from what is actually the case.
examples:
Telling a quiet group: 'don’t speak all at once.'
Telling a rude customer to 'have a nice day'.
Describing someone who says foolish things as a genius.
J
K
L
Litotes
A simple method of double negatives that presents a positive statement—denies the opposite. It is often used to express irony.
examples:
You are not unfamiliar with poetry.
I am not unmindful that some of you have come here out of great trials and tribulations. - Martin Luther King, Jr.
He’s not a bad singer.
Boats aren't easy to find in the dark.
M
meiosis (opposite of 'hyperbole')
A deliberate understatement.
examples:
‘The situation has developed, not necessarily to our advantage.’ Emperor Hirohito, announcing to the Japanese people that atomic bombs had been dropped on Hiroshima and Nagasaki.
‘It's just a flesh wound.’ The Black Knight, having just had both arms chopped off, in Monty Python and the Holy Grail.
‘I'm going outside and may be some time.’ Capt. Lawrence Oates, Antarctic explorer, before leaving his tent to certain death in a blizzard, 1912.
Britain is just ‘across the pond’ from the Americas.
mesodiplosis
The repetition of the same words in the middle of successive sentences.
examples:
‘We are troubled on every side, yet not distressed; we are perplexed, but not in despair; persecuted, but not forsaken; cast down, but not destroyed.’ 2 Corinthians 4:8-9
‘Today in America, a teacher spent extra time with a student who needed it, and did her part to lift America’s graduation rate to its highest level in more than three decades. An entrepreneur flipped on the lights in her tech startup, and did her part to add to the more than eight million new jobs our businesses have created over the past four years. An autoworker fine-tuned some of the best, most fuel-efficient cars in the world, and did his part to help America wean itself off foreign oil.’ - President Obama, 2014
metabasis
A brief statement of what has been said and what will follow; a kind of transitional summary.
examples:
‘So far I have concentrated only on the costs of the proposal. I now want to turn to the benefits.’
‘So much for the achievements of last year. Let's look at the objectives for this one.’
metanoia
A correction or qualification a statement.
examples:
You are the most beautiful woman in this town; nay, the entire world.
metaphor
A type of implied comparison that compares two things by stating one is the other.
examples:
Your eyes are the windows of your soul.
Through much of the last century, America's faith in freedom and democracy was a rock in a raging sea. Now it is a seed upon the wind, taking root in many nations.
metonymy
A type of metaphor where something is referred to using something closely associated with it.
examples:
The power of the pen. (refers to writing.)
The land belongs to the crown. (refers to the power of a monarchy.)
The White House declared. (refers to the US president.)
Empty pockets never held anyone back. Only empty heads and empty hearts can do that. Norman Vincent Peale
(empty pockets = poverty; empty heads = ignorance; empty hearts = unkindness)
N
O
onomatopoeia
Where words imitate the sounds they describe.
examples:
bang.
clunk.
pop.
the ‘squeal’ of tires.
the ‘jingle’ of car keys.
oxymoron (or a contradiction in terms)
A conjuction of two, aparently contradictory, terms.
examples:
That is seriously funny.
A deafening silence.
Grow smaller.
P
parallelism
Where successive clauses or sentences are similarly structured.
examples:
Like father, like son.
The mediocre teacher tells, The good teacher explains. The great teacher inspires. (William A. Ward)
Tell me and I forget. Teach me and I may remember. Involve me and I will learn. (Benjamin Franklin)
parenthesis
Where the normal progression of a sentence is interrupted by extra information or explanations enclosed in commas, brackets or dashes. The extra information can be a single word, a phrase or even a sentence.
examples:
We (myself, wife Lorraine and daughters Caroline and Joanna) boarded our boat 'Lynn', a Duchess class vessel barely a year old, at Black Prince Holidays' Chirk boatyard.
personification
Attributing human qualities to inanimate objects, animals or plants.
examples:
The thunder roared in the evening.
The flowers nodded their heads as if to greet us.
The brutal wind bullied the trees compelling them into giving up their leaves.
pleonasm
A redundancy in linguistic expression, such as ‘black darkness’ or ‘burning fire’. (A manifestation of tautology.) It may be used for emphasis, or to reinvigorate a hackneyed expression.
examples:
‘pleasantly nice’ for ‘nice’.
‘black darkness’ for ‘darkness’.
points of view (or narration technique)
Speaking from the first, second or third person point of view.
examples:
First person: 'I felt excited at the prospect.' Sharing personal experiences.
Second person: 'You will find it quite different.' Conversationsl and engaging.
Third person: 'They entered through the front door.' Freedom for the narrator who is all knowing.
polysyndeton
A literary device that uses multiple repetitions of the same conjunction (and, but, if, etc). Most commonly the word 'and'.
examples:
Neither snow nor rain nor heat nor gloom of night stays these couriers.” (the U.S. Postal Service Creed)
'If there be cords, or knives, Poison, or fire, or suffocating streams, I’ll not endure it.' (William Shakespeare, Othello III.3)
powerful beginning
It is important to capture the attention of the audience at the start, by the use of rhetorical devices.
examples:
powerful end
What you say in the end is what stays with the audience hence, ending the speech with impactful rhetorical devices is advisable.
examples:
Q
R
rhetorical question
A question asked in order to create a dramatic effect or to make a point rather than to get an answer.
examples:
How could I be so stupid?
Here was a Caesar! when comes such another? Shakespeare (Julius Caesar)
What have the Romans ever done for us? (Monty Python's Life of Brian)
S
sententia
The use of a famous proverb, maxim, quotation or saying to support one’s argument. From the Latin for ‘feeling’, ‘thought’, ‘opinion’.
simile
A simile directly compares one object to another using ‘like’ or ‘as’.
examples:
He smokes like a chimney.
He was as hungry as a lion.
My friend is as good as gold
slogans
A slogan is a catchy phrase or series of words used to help consumers remember a company, brand or product.
examples:
A glass and a half in every half-pound. Cadbury.
Because you’re worth it. L’Oreal
symploce
Where a word or phrase is used successively at the beginning of two or more clauses or sentences and another word or phrase, with a similar wording, is used successively at the end of them. It is the combination of anaphora and epistrophe.
examples:
When there is talk of hatred, let us stand up and talk against it. When there is talk of violence, let us stand up and talk against it. Bill Clinton
synecdoche
Where a part of a thing is used to reference the wholewhole. This differs slightly from metonymy, where something is references by an associated item.
examples:
Referring to workers as ‘hands’.
Referring to an old man as a ‘greybeard’.
T
tmesis
Where a compound word is broken into two parts, with another word (or words) placed in between. Usually to be humorous or emphasize something.
examples:
I can't find it any-blooming-where.
fan-frickin'-tastic.
U
understatement
To make a statement of an idea sound less important than it really is. Sometimes a statement is deliberately weakened to sound ironical or softened to sound more polite.
examples:
It is a bit nippy today. Temperature -5o c.
V
W
X
Y
Z
zeugma (also called syllepsis)
Where two nouns with different meanings are placed in a similar position in a sentence.
examples:
They covered themselves with dust and glory. Mark Twain
He caught the train and a bad cold.
Categories of Rhetorical Appeals
In his work ‘Rhetoric’, Aristotle identified three ‘modes for persuasion’ — otherwise known as rhetorical appeals — named ‘ethos’ (appeal to authority), ‘pathos’ (appeal to emotion), & ‘logos’ (appeal to logic). They are tools for persuading others to a particular point of view and are often used in writing and advertising to sway the audience. Modern thinking now postulates a fourth mode, ‘kairos’ (an appeal to timeliness or context).
1. ethos
Ethos is convincing the audience of the authority and credibility of the presenter (to speak on the subject).
examples:
I am a doctor, and I'm telling you this treatment is required to cure your condition.
If my years as a Marine taught me anything, it's that caution is the best policy in this sort of situation.
Four out of five dentists use Sensodine—it is the best toothpaste for sensitive teeth.
2. pathos
Pathos is a way of convincing an audience of an argument by an appeal to their emotions. This includes using evokative, impassioned language to evoke an emotional response and empathetic feeling towards the speaker's point of view. Any device that generates an sympathetic emotional response may be used, including historical and literary analogies.
examples:
Let us not wallow in the valley of despair, I say to you today, my friends. And so even though we face the difficulties of today and tomorrow, I still have a dream. It is a dream deeply rooted in the American dream. — Martin Luther King Jr.
If we don't move soon, we're all going to die!
You'll make the right decision because you have something that not many people do: You have heart.
3. logos
Logos is a way of persuading an audience by reasoning and presenting credible facts.
examples:
Ladies and gentlemen of the jury: We have not only the fingerprints, the lack of an alibi, a clear motive, and an expressed desire to commit the robbery, but we also have video of the suspect breaking in. The case could not be more open and shut.
More than one hundred peer-reviewed studies have been conducted over the past decade, and none of them suggests that this is an effective treatment for hair loss.
4. kairos
Kairos involves an appeal to the timing of the argument, meaning that the argument has to be made in a suitable context making the audience receptive to it.
examples:
This is no time to engage in the luxury of cooling off or to take the tranquilizing drug of gradualism. Now is the time to make real the promises of democracy. Now is the time to make to rise from the dark and desolate valley of segregation to the sunlit path of racial justice.” — Martin Luther King Jr.
References
I have compiled this list of rhetorical devices from many resources, freely available on the internet. Some of them I list here:
https://blog.reedsy.com/rhetorical-devices/
https://www.thoughtco.com
https://literaryterms.net
https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
https://www.britannica.com
http://changingminds.org/techniques/language/figures_speech/
https://examples.yourdictionary.com/examples
https://boords.com/ethos-pathos-logos/what-is-kairos
https://mannerofspeaking.org/2012/09/18/rhetorical-devices-sententia/
